But it cannot be denied that ancient scientists worked in fields of astronomy, alchemy, biology, chemistry, dentistry, anaesthesiology, geography, mineralogy etc.

Metallurgy in particular was carried on with an elaborate technique and mining was an important occupation of the people. Even as early as 3400 B.C, the Egyptians had an intimate knowledge of copper ores and of processes of extracting the metal.

During the fourth and subsequent dynasties, metals seem to have been entirely monopolies of the Court, the management of the mines and quarries being entrusted to the highest officials. Iron was also prized highly by the Egyptians. Bronze, tin and cobalt have been detected in Egypt.

Vast quantities of gold were extracted from the mines. Over hundreds of ancient gold workings have been discovered. The gold mines in Nubia and other parts of the Egyptian empire seem to have been very efficiently designed and controlled, though with a callous disregard for the human element employed.

Mercury is stated to have been found in Egyptian tombs of from 1500-1600 B.C. Some metals were associated with some planets. For example, Gold was associated with the sun and the silver with the moon.

A papyrus called Leyden papyrus comprises about seventy-five recipes pertaining to the making of alloys, for soldering metals, for colouring the surfaces of metals, for testing the quality of or purity of metals, or for imitating the precious metals.

Egyptians from very ancient dates were familiar with the art of glass making. Glass jars, figures and ornaments have been discovered in the tombs. The paintings on the tombs have been interpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing. Egyptian glass articles were of coloured glass, often beautifully patterned.

The Egyptians developed a well established writing system although only a small percent of the population was literate. Writing was done in Papyrus which had a lengthy and expensive manufacturing process. A Complex writing system consisting of thousands of pictorial symbols was called hieroglyphics.

In mathematics, there were good approximations for, and a method of calculating the surface and volumes of various geometric shapes. Rhind Papyrus is an important mathematics text. Money was not discovered in Egypt and barter system prevailed in the market.

The Egyptian concern for body preservation, mummification and anatomy, allowed this culture to develop highly advanced medical practices. These important advances included knowledge about a large variety of Herbal remedies, medicinal drugs and some contraceptive devices.

Egyptian medical knowledge was transferred by the Greeks into other Middle Eastern and European civilizations. The 'Smith Papyrus', and to a lesser extent the 'Ebers Papyrus', give us a very favourable idea of the medicine, anatomy, and physiology of the Egyptians. Medicine was specialised.

Egyptian discoveries such as the leap year system, calendars and clocks are followed by the world community even today.